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DOE OSTI2023

EUI Benchmarks for Net-Zero Energy Buildings in India

In our study we present EUI benchmarks for NZEBs for six building types across residential and non-residential typologies and for India's five climate zones. This approach is similar to the simulation-based benchmarks used by the B3 program in Minnesota, the Cal-Arch methodology in California, and the US Solar Decathlon approach, which combine simulations with actual building data. Of the six building types we explore one in detail with a range of operation scenarios, specifically narrowing down the EUI benchmarks for mixed-mode building operation and for variable temperature set-points as prescribed in the National Building Code of India.The contribution of this work is to provide rigorous end-use level EUI benchmarks for six building types, and to describe a method for simulation-based EUI benchmarks for mixed-mode operation with variable setpoints to highlight the difference between the standard approach used for the five building types and the On-Site Construction Worker Housing which additionally has the mixed-mode variable setpoint approach.On-Site Construction Worker Housings are typically poorly constructed temporary structures, without adequate thermal comfort, It is critical to provide adequate thermal comfort to protect people from the warming effects of climate change, and to discover super efficient and cost-effective ways to do so.The methodology used for the On-Site Construction Worker Housing (CWH) results in an 80% acceptability according to the India Model for Adaptive Comfort in the National Building Code of India. EUIs of all six buildings are 60% lower than the minimum compliance with India's Energy Conservation Building Codes, providing benchmarks for efficiency levels. The end-use level EUI benchmarks are now provided to over 1800 Solar Decathlon India participants so that they can compare the performance of their NZEB designs.In particular, the CWH results provide an insight into the importance of the mixed-mode operation with variable temperature set-points. The results from the simulation study show that for an NZEB target, the EUI with standard thermal comfort model and without mixed operation is 58.26 kWh/m2*year, while that with the variable set-points of the adaptive model with mixed mode operation is 24.23 kWh/m2*year. This is a 58% reduction in EUI. Given that many building types including residential, and non-residential operate in mixed mode, it is important to take this work further to develop mixed-mode operation NZEB benchmarks so that the carbon intensity of these buildings could be lower than the standard thermal comfort model approach.

benchmarking↗

DOE OSTI2024

Efficient Anomaly Detection Driven By Different Machine Learning Architectures And Models

The rapid growth and ubiquitous adoption of the internet and cyber-physical systems (CPS) have fundamentally transformed modern communication, work, and human-system interactions. While networks now form the backbone of critical digital ecosystems, enabling seamless data transmission across diverse, interconnected systems, this increased connectivity also expands the attack surface, making real-time detection of network intrusions and anomalies a pressing challenge. Detecting unusual activities within network infrastructure requires advanced data traffic analysis to differentiate between legitimate and malicious interactions. Traditional approaches to network anomaly detectionâ??such as rule-based and signature-based systemsâ??often depend on predefined patterns to identify known anomalies, limiting their effectiveness against emerging, stealthy, or previously unseen threats. These conventional methods suffer from high false alarm rates and fail to adapt to the ever-evolving nature of network traffic, particularly in large-scale, decentralized environments where data volume, velocity, and variety are constantly increasing. This dissertation presents artificial intelligence (AI)-driven approaches to anomaly detection that leverage graphics processing unit (GPU)-enabled high-performance computing (HPC) platforms for processing massive network traffic data and monitoring the components of cyber-physical systems (CPS) for potentially hazardous conditions. The research advances several key contributions: (1) Designing efficient machine learning techniques for CPS condition monitoring and anomaly detection; (2) enabling federated learning (FL) frameworks that enable distributed detection while preserving data privacy and system resilience; (3) exploring graph-based methodologies combining graph neural networks (GNN) and graph machine learning (ML) approaches for the Internet of Things (IoT) and automotive network security, and (4) performing distributed edge computing optimizations that integrate FL with scalable technologies for reduced communication overhead. Through extensive experiments, these methodologies demonstrate that complex anomaly detection and condition monitoring tasks can be achieved while balancing computational efficiency and detection accuracy through fine-grained network information processing. The frameworks developed in this research establish a robust foundation for network anomaly detection, providing scalable, adaptive, and privacy-preserving solutions for safeguarding CPS and IoT networks in an increasingly interconnected digital landscape. The practical implications of these research findings are significant, as they can inform the development of next-generation network security systems and contribute to the protection of critical infrastructure against sophisticated cyber attacks.

Marfo, William↗

DOE OSTI2021

Physical protection regulates microbial thermal responses to chronic soil warming

Climate warming can affect the temperature sensitivity of microbial activity and growth efficiency, possibly explained by changes to microbially unavailable carbon (C) protected within in soil aggregates. Here, we assessed physical protection by crushing macroaggregates (250–2000 μm) and microaggregates (<250 μm) isolated from mineral soils exposed to 27 years of experimental warming (+5 °C). We hypothesized that removal of physical protection would increase microbial activity and reduce C use efficiency (CUE). We found that crushing increased microbial respiration and biomass turnover rate, but did not affect CUE. We also hypothesized that long-term warming would reduce the effect of physical protection on microbial activity, and that physical protection would attenuate microbial temperature sensitivity in heated compared to control soils. We found that long-term warming was associated with a smaller effect of physical protection for microbial respiration but with a larger effect for biomass turnover rate in macroaggregates. Physical protection reduced the temperature sensitivity of respiration but enhanced the temperature sensitivity of microbial biomass turnover rate in heated compared to control soils. Our work shows that long-term warming has contrasting effects on how microbial respiration, biomass turnover rate, and their thermal responses are mediated by physical protection within soil aggregates.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2024

Simulant Development of Potential 200 West Area Waste Feeds

Preliminary planning for retrieval, qualification, and pretreatment of waste in Hanford’s 200 West Area (200W) has begun as part of the West Area Risk Management project. Experimental studies to technically mature pretreatment process operations will likely be needed because of the uniqueness of 200W waste. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory formulated five simulants to represent 200W-qualified feed based on the preliminary flowsheet provided by Washington River Protection Solutions, LLC. The simulant recipes were devised using applicable historical information as a reference point to support the use of the flowsheet waste vectors, which were combined into five distinct groups. These five groups formed the basis for the liquid composition targets that were adapted into recipes using charged-balanced salt species. The liquid phase recipes were batched in 1-L quantities and analyzed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Once confirmed to be stable, the liquid solutions were tested for compatibility with candidate solid components. Specific solid components were recommended based on cross-examining the proposed solid phases in the flowsheet with relevant data from the literature. Mixtures of solid components were added to aliquots of the liquid batches and sub-sampled to measure particle size distribution. The measured distribution was compared to independently created benchmark distributions appropriate for each simulant. This process was iterated until a solid phase composition that resulted in a representative particle size distribution was found. After the final compositions were confirmed, a suite of chemical and physical characterization data was collected. This report describes the simulant basis, formulation methodology, laboratory measurements, and data collected for the recipes recommended to represent 200W waste feeds.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2021

Mercury Remediation Technology Development for Lower East Fork Poplar Creek—FY 2021 Update

Mercury remediation is a high priority for the US Department of Energy (DOE) Oak Ridge Office of Environmental Management. Mercury contamination in the environment can be found at all three DOE facilities in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, but the greatest environmental risk concern relative to Hg on the Oak Ridge Reservation is likely associated with historical Hg losses at and near the Y-12 National Security Complex (Y-12). Mercury in water and fish from East Fork Poplar Creek (EFPC) downstream of Y-12 exceeds regulatory thresholds. Because of the complexities of Hg transport and fate in the aquatic environment, conventional remedial options for EFPC are highly uncertain. DOE is using a phased adaptive management approach to Hg remediation at Y-12, with a focus in the next few years on construction of the Mercury Treatment Facility (MTF) to treat the most contaminated Y-12 outfall entering EFPC (DOE 2017a; DOE 2017b). Once operational, the MTF will provide additional protection against inadvertent releases of Hg into the stream from decontamination and decommissioning of Y-12 Hg-use buildings. Although the MTF is anticipated to substantially decrease Hg water concentrations and flux in upper EFPC (UEFPC), research and technology development are needed to develop appropriate and longer-term remedial solutions for the downstream environment. Since late 2014, the Oak Ridge Office of Environmental Management and URS | CH2M Oak Ridge LLC/Restoration Services Inc. have supported DOE’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) Environmental Sciences Division staff in conducting field and laboratory studies to develop Hg remedial technology solutions for lower EFPC (LEFPC). Whereas previous annual reporting updates for Hg remediation technology development for LEFPC have focused on presenting detailed results from the previous fiscal year, this FY 2021 update takes a comprehensive, higher-level approach to the research and technology development activities conducted since 2014. The report is organized to be consistent with the three tasks defined in the LEFPC strategic plan

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2024

Bacterial Volatile Organic Compounds as a Strategy to Increase Drought Tolerance in Maize (Zea mays L.): Influence on Plant Biochemistry

Maize is highly susceptible to drought, which affects growth and yield. This study investigated how bacterial volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) affect maize drought tolerance. Drought reduced shoot size but increased root length, an adaptation for accessing deeper soil moisture. BVOCs from strain D12 significantly increased root length and shoot growth under drought conditions. Drought also altered root biochemistry, decreasing enzyme activity, and increased osmolyte levels. BVOCs from strains F11 and FS4-14 further increased osmolyte levels but did not protect membranes from oxidative damage, while BVOCs from strains D12 and D7 strains reduced osmolyte levels and cell damage. In shoots, drought increased the levels of osmolytes and oxidative stress markers. BVOCs from FS4-14 had minimal effects on shoot biochemistry. BVOCs from D12 and F11 partially restored metabolic activity but did not reduce cell damage. BVOCs from D7 reduced metabolic activity and cell damage. These results suggest that BVOCs can modulate the biochemical response of maize to drought, with some strains evidencing the potential to enhance drought tolerance.

Lopes, Tiago (ORCID:0000000330603315)↗

DOE OSTI2020

Restoring Distribution System Under Renewable Uncertainty Using Reinforcement Learning: Preprint

Distributed energy resources (DER) in distribution systems, including renewable generation, micro-turbine, and energy storage, can be used to restore critical loads following extreme events to increase grid resiliency. However, properly coordinating multiple DERs in the system for multi-step restoration process under renewable uncertainty and fuel availability is a complicated sequential optimal control problem. Due to its capability to handle system non-linearity and uncertainty, reinforcement learning (RL) stands out as a potentially powerful candidate in solving complex sequential control problems. Moreover, the offline training of RL provides excellent action readiness during online operation, making it suitable to problems such as load restoration, where in-time, correct and coordinated actions are needed. In this study, a distribution system prioritized load restoration based on a simplified single-bus system is studied: with imperfect renewable generation forecast, the performance of an RL controller is compared with that of a deterministic model predictive control (MPC). Our experiment results show that the RL controller is able to learn from experience, adapt to the imperfect forecast information and provide a more reliable restoration process when compared with the baseline MPC controller.

61 RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSIMETRY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Restoring Distribution System Under Renewable Uncertainty Using Reinforcement Learning

61 RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSIMETRY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Restoring Distribution System Under Renewable Uncertainty Using Reinforcement Learning

Distributed energy resources (DERs) in distribution systems, including renewable generation, micro-turbine, and energy storage, can be used to restore critical loads following extreme events to increase grid resiliency. However, properly coordinating multiple DERs in the system for multi-step restoration process under renewable uncertainty and fuel availability is a complicated sequential optimal control problem. Due to its capability to handle system non-linearity and uncertainty, reinforcement learning (RL) stands out as a potentially powerful candidate in solving complex sequential control problems. Moreover, the offline training of RL provides excellent action readiness during online operation, making it suitable to problems such as load restoration, where in-time, correct and coordinated actions are needed. In this study, a distribution system prioritized load restoration based on a simplified single-bus system is studied: with imperfect renewable generation forecast, the performance of an RL controller is compared with that of a deterministic model predictive control (MPC). Our experiment results show that the RL controller is able to learn from experience, adapt to the imperfect forecast information and provide a more reliable restoration process when compared with the baseline controller.

61 RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSIMETRY↗

DOE OSTI2022

Rapid Load Transition for Integrated Solid Oxide Fuel Cell - Gas Turbine (SOFC-GT) Energy Systems: A Demonstration of the Potential for Grid Response

Rapid load transition is an essential requirement for integrated energy systems to maintain grid resilience as more renewable resources are added to the grid. Integrated solid oxide fuel cell - gas turbine (SOFC-GT) systems can provide high efficiency and low carbon emissions over a broad range of turndown. These hybrids also have the potential to enable rapid grid response. The challenge has been to demonstrate effective control strategies to manage load transitions. In the present study, a load transition of ~50% was achieved in 10 s using a novel but simple strategy. Power demand on the SOFC and the GT were ramped down concurrently. During this transition, the SOFC anode fuel was manipulated to maintain SOFC fuel utilization while the cathode inlet air flow and temperature were also manipulated to thermally protect the SOFC. This study was conducted using the Hybrid Performance (Hyper) facility at the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) in a co-simulation environment with the Idaho National Laboratory (INL)'s grid-simulation. The load ramping strategy was tested using a hardware-based cyber-physical simulation methodology. The results demonstrate a high-fidelity representation of SOFC-GT hybrid dynamics and validation of the control strategy. Thermal and electrochemical transients indicated that the SOFC was well protected during rapid load turndown without violating operability constraints. This demonstration revealed the non-linear nature of tightly coupled SOFC-GT system components, especially the non-linear response of SOFC cathode air flow and inlet temperature controls. These results highlight the needs and challenges in developing adaptive automatic controls for autonomous rapid load transitions. This work demonstrates that SOFC-GT hybrids are a viable option to provide the fast-ramping characteristics essential to accommodate high levels of variable renewable power while maintaining grid resilience, reliability, and environmental performance. The results also demonstrate the utility of co-simulation in advancing the tightly-coupled integrated energy systems needed to meet goals for zero-carbon power generation.

DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION,POWER TRANSMISSION AND DI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Connected Loads – Grid Connected Appliances: Commercial Refrigeration System Fault Detection and Diagnostics

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2022

Connected Loads – Grid Connected Appliances: Deployment IoT Solution for Fault Detection and Diagnostics

As one of the most energy-intensive end-uses in the commercial buildings sector, supermarkets consume around 50 kWh/ft 2 ( or 537.6 kWh/m 2 ) of electricity annually, or more than 2 million kWh of electricity per year for a typical store. The biggest consumer of energy in a supermarket is its refrigeration system, which accounts for 40–60% of its total electricity usage and is equivalent to about 2–3% of the total energy consumed by commercial buildings in United States, or around 0.5 quadrillion Btu (or 0.53 quadrillion KJ). Also, the supermarket refrigeration system is one of the biggest consumers of refrigerants. Current supermarket refrigeration systems rely on high global warming potential hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants. Reducing refrigerant usage or using environment friendly alternatives can result in significant climate benefits. Transcritical CO2 refrigeration systems have attracted more attention in recent years because of their zero-carbon emission advantages compared with traditional refrigerants. These systems are widely used in commercial buildings such as supermarkets. The refrigeration system can also be adapted to handle flexible building loads and be integrated into grid response transactive control to balance the supply and demand of the electric grid. Even minor improvements in the efficiency and operational reliability of supermarket refrigeration systems can create significant value in terms of saving energy, improving food quality, protecting the environment, reducing carbon footprint, and enhancing electric grid resilience. For decarbonization, the new administration has set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50– 52% by 2030 and targeting a carbon-neutral economy by 2050. For electrification, the goal is to achieve 100% clean electricity by 2035. Such decarbonization and electrification in the building sector require that energy consumption in buildings be reduced significantly. Therefore, the building sector must continuously adopt new technologies to achieve its energy and carbon emission goals. One of the most fundamental technologies is the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT has proven to be an effective solution for the building domain, including building information/energy modeling, smart buildings, etc. Although much progress has been made in the development of IoT-based building energy systems, there is still a lack of reliable, scalable, and affordable IoT-based automated fault and degradation diagnostics (AFDDs) solutions. Such solutions would enable deployment of advanced algorithms into real systems to archive the projected energy benefits. This study reviews existing IoT solutions developed for building energy– related application and developed a simple but effective AFDD IoT deployment solution, including developing a suitable IoT architecture and conducting easy and scalable deployment by leveraging a common cloud-based IoT service.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Resilient cooling strategies – A critical review and qualitative assessment

The global effects of climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of extreme events such as heatwaves and power outages, which have consequences for buildings and their cooling systems. Buildings and their cooling systems should be designed and operated to be resilient under such events to protect occupants from potentially dangerous indoor thermal conditions. This study performed a critical review on the state-of-the-art of cooling strategies, with special attention to their performance under heatwaves and power outages. We proposed a definition of resilient cooling and described four criteria for resilience—absorptive capacity, adaptive capacity, restorative capacity, and recovery speed —and used them to qualitatively evaluate the resilience of each strategy. The literature review and qualitative analyses show that to attain resilient cooling, the four resilience criteria should be considered in the design phase of a building or during the planning of retrofits. The building and relevant cooling system characteristics should be considered simultaneously to withstand extreme events. A combination of strategies with different resilience capacities, such as a passive envelope strategy coupled with a low-energy space-cooling solution, may be needed to obtain resilient cooling. Finally, a further direction for a quantitative assessment approach has been pointed out.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Comprehensive Chemical Fingerprinting by Multidimensional GC and Supervised Machine Learning

This project leveraged advances in machine learning based data analysis techniques and untargeted analytical methods for organic analysis to progress nuclear nonproliferation technologies beyond current capabilities. The developed approaches can be used to detect and identify complex chemical fingerprints of facilities of interest. These techniques have been developed for fields such as metabolomics and genomics but have not been applied to nuclear nonproliferation applications. Adaptation of these techniques for volatile organic compound analysis has far reaching application within the scientific community including environmental chemistry, atmospheric physics, and climate sciences.

98 NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT, SAFEGUARDS, AND PHYSICAL P↗

DOE OSTI2024

Two-Way Option Contracts That Facilitate Adaptive Water Reallocation in the Western United States

Many water markets in the western United States (U.S.) have the ability to reallocate water temporarily during drought, often as short-term water rights leases from lower value irrigated activities to higher value urban uses. Regulatory approval of water transfers, however, typically takes time and involves high transaction costs that arise from technical and legal analyses, discouraging short-term leasing. This leads municipalities to protect against drought-related shortfalls by purchasing large volumes of infrequently used permanent water rights. High transaction costs also result in municipal water rights rarely being leased back to irrigators in wet or normal years, reducing agricultural productivity. This research explores the development of a multi-year two-way option (TWO) contract that facilitates leasing from agricultural-to-urban users during drought and leasing from urban-to agricultural users during wet periods. The modeling framework developed to assess performance of the TWO contracts includes consideration of the hydrologic, engineered, and institutional systems governing the South Platte River Basin in Colorado where there is growing competition for water between municipalities (e.g., the city of Boulder) and irrigators. The modeling framework is built around StateMod, a network-based water allocation model used by state regulators to evaluate water rights allocations and potential rights transfers. Results suggest that the TWO contracts could allow municipalities to maintain supply reliability with significantly reduced rights holdings at lower cost, while increasing agricultural productivity in wet and normal years. Additionally, the TWO contracts provide irrigators with additional revenues via net payments of option fees from municipalities.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2023

Deformation Rate‐Adaptive Conducting Polymers and Composites

Abstract Materials are more easily damaged during accidents that involve rapid deformation. Here, a design strategy is described for electronic materials comprised of conducting polymers that defies this orthodox property, making their extensibility and toughness dynamically adaptive to deformation rates. This counterintuitive property is achieved through a morphology of interconnected nanoscopic core–shell micelles, where the chemical interactions are stronger within the shells than the cores. As a result, the interlinked shells retain material integrity under strain, while the rate of dissociation of the cores controls the extent of micelle elongation, which is a process that adapts to deformation rates. A prototype based on polyaniline shows a 7.5‐fold increase in ultimate elongation and a 163‐fold increase in toughness when deformed at increasing rates from 2.5 to 10 000% min −1 . This concept can be generalized to other conducting polymers and highly conductive composites to create “self‐protective” soft electronic materials with enhanced durability under dynamic movement or deformation.

Hernandez, Victor↗

DOE OSTI2022

Cryptosporulation in Kurthia spp. forces a rethinking of asporogenesis in Firmicutes

Endosporulation is a complex morphophysiological process resulting in a more resistant cellular structure that is produced within the mother cell and is called endospore. Endosporulation evolved in the common ancestor of Firmicutes, but it is lost in descendant lineages classified as asporogenic. While Kurthia spp. is considered to comprise only asporogenic species, we show here that strain 11kri321, which was isolated from an oligotrophic geothermal reservoir, produces phase-bright spore-like structures. Phylogenomics of strain 11kri321 and other Kurthia strains reveals little similarity to genetic determinants of sporulation known from endosporulating Bacilli. However, morphological hallmarks of endosporulation were observed in two of the four Kurthia strains tested, resulting in spore-like structures (cryptospores). In contrast to classic endospores, these cryptospores did not protect against heat or UV damage and successive sub-culturing led to the loss of the cryptosporulating phenotype. Our findings imply that a cryptosporulation phenotype may have been prevalent and subsequently lost by laboratory culturing in other Firmicutes currently considered as asporogenic. Cryptosporulation might thus represent an ancestral but unstable and adaptive developmental state in Firmicutes that is under selection under harsh environmental conditions.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Oxidation Behavior and Property Degradation of Nuclear Graphites

During its multidecade operation in the core of nuclear reactors, graphite components are subjected to aggressive and continuous exposure to a high field of ionizing and neutron irradiation, high temperature, and various types of present and postulated chemical attacks. High density, high crystallinity polygranular synthetic graphite is unique among other materials for its extraordinary capacity of resisting and adapting to the aggression inflicted by high temperature, high energy neutron bombardment and ionizing gamma radiation. But, as a carbonaceous material, even though of very high purity, graphite is reactive towards common oxidizing agents: oxygen, carbon dioxide, water. Safe operation of HTGRs relies, among other aspects, on engineered safeguard systems for efficient and continuous protection of graphite components against oxidation. Graphite oxidation behavior was, and continues to be, an important direction of theoretical and experimental research, engineering analyses, models and simulations, and design and safety regulations. The avalanche of publications, reports, experimental data, computer codes, and regulatory documents related to oxidation behavior of nuclear graphite is now accelerating to new levels, prompted by the increased interest for nuclear energy as a clean, carbon-free energy source. Even though public’s perception of nuclear energy advantages may still be influenced by the memories of past accidents of nuclear reactors from generations II and III, the community of informed scientists and engineers, regulators and statemen knows that generation IV of nuclear reactors is designed at very high safety standards, doubled by great advances of scientific knowledge and technological progress. One of routes of these recent advances is directed at better understanding of graphite oxidation behavior, its relationship with graphite manufacturing and microstructural properties, along with the effects of various environmental factors and process variables. Together, the recent progress in manufacturing, properties characterization, and modeling of intricated physical and chemical processes that concur to the oxidation behavior led to development of powerful simulation codes able to analyze various scenarios of normal operation and hypothetical off-normal events, and thus to clearly specify the allowable parameters envelopes for the designers, constructors, and operators of current and future modular HTGRs. This review begins with an introduction on manufacturing methods, structure, and properties of nuclear graphite, including basic requirements that this specialty graphite type must satisfy for nuclear use. It continues with a chapter on environmental effects on nuclear graphite, where emphasis is placed less on irradiation and much more on oxidation phenomena, their safety implications, and the basic traits of chronic and acute oxidation by air (oxygen) and water (humidity, steam). Particular attention is placed on the three graphite grades of interest for this document (IG-110, NBG-18, PCEA). A chapter on properties degradation induced by oxidation follows, with focus on density, dimensional, and mechanical properties changes. The next chapter is intended as a brief review of various approaches used for modeling of graphite oxidation behavior. It summarizes the progress of oxidation models, from the early attempts to complex computational approaches interfaced with specialized computer codes designed for nuclear reactor simulations. Last, a list is presented of knowledge gaps where more research is needed. A short summary concludes the review.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗