Engineering topics

Gaier, James R.

Publications and source records attributed to Gaier, James R..

At least 109 records · Page 6

NASA NTRS1991

Resistivity of pristine and intercalated graphite fiber epoxy composites

Laminar composites were fabricated from pristine and bromine intercalated Amoco P-55, P-75, and P-100 graphite fibers and Hysol-Grafil EAG101-1 film epoxy. The thickness and r.f. eddy current resistivity of several samples were measured at grid points and averaged point by point to obtain final values. Although the values obtained this way have high precision (less than 3 percent deviation), the resistivity values appear to be 20 to 90 percent higher than resistivities measured on high aspect ratio samples using multi-point techniques, and by those predicted by theory. The temperature dependence of the resistivity indicates that the fibers are neither damaged nor deintercalated by the composite fabrication process. The resistivity of the composites is a function of sample thickness (i.e., resin content). Composite resistivity is dominated by fiber resistivity, so lowering the resistivity of the fibers, either through increased graphitization or intercalation, results in a lower composite resistivity. A modification of the simple rule of mixtures model appears to predict the conductivity of high aspect ratio samples measured along a fiber direction, but a directional dependence appears which is not predicted by the theory. The resistivity of these materials is clearly more complex than that of homogeneous materials.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Effect of particle size of Martian dust on the degradation of photovoltaic cell performance

Glass coverglass and SiO2 covered and uncovered silicon photovoltaic (PV) cells were subjected to conditions simulating a Mars dust storm, using the Martian Surface Wind Tunnel, to assess the effect of particle size on the performance of PV cells in the Martian environment. The dust used was an artificial mineral of the approximate elemental composition of Martian soil, which was sorted into four different size ranges. Samples were tested both initially clean and initially dusted. The samples were exposed to clear and dust laden winds, wind velocities varying from 23 to 116 m/s, and attack angles from 0 to 90 deg. It was found that transmittance through the coverglass approximates the power produced by a dusty PV cell. Occultation by the dust was found to dominate the performance degradation for wind velocities below 50 m/s, whereas abrasion dominates the degradation at wind velocities above 85 m/s. Occultation is most severe at 0 deg (parallel to the wind), is less pronounced from 22.5 to 67.5 deg, and is somewhat larger at 90 deg (perpendicular to the wind). Abrasion is negligible at 0 deg, and increases to a maximum at 90 deg. Occultation is more of a problem with small particles, whereas large particles (unless they are agglomerates) cause more abrasion.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Properties of novel CVD graphite fibers and their bromine intercalation compounds

A hybrid fiber with a PAN core surrounded by a vapor grown carbon fiber (VGCF) sheath was fabricated using a proprietary process. The density, ultimate tensile strength, Young's modulus, and resistivity of pristine and bromine intercalated fibers made by this technique having diameters varying from 5 to 50 microns were compared with the values predicted from the rule of mixtures model. For both the pristine and intercalated fibers, the density, ultimate tensile strength, and Young's modulus of the fibers were lower than predicted, but the resistivity was measured to be consistent with predictions. The lower than theoretical mechanical properties may be evidence of a low density disordered interface between the core and the sheath which would lower the density and degrade the mechanical properties, but would leave the resistivity nearly unaffected. Intercalation had little if any effect on the ultimate tensile strength and Young's modulus, but raised the density by about 11 pct., and lowered the resistivity by an order of magnitude. The diameter dependence of the resistivity showed evidence of a depletion layer of the type found in VGCF.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Sensible heat receiver for solar dynamic space power system

A sensible heat receiver is considered which uses a vapor grown carbon fiber-carbon (VGCF/C) composite as the thermal storage medium and which was designed for a 7-kW Brayton engine. This heat receiver stores the required energy to power the system during eclipse in the VGCF/C composite. The heat receiver thermal analysis was conducted through the Systems Improved Numerical Differencing Analyzer and Fluid Integrator (SINDA) software package. The sensible heat receiver compares well with other latent and advanced sensible heat receivers analyzed in other studies, while avoiding the problems associated with latent heat storage salts and liquid metal heat pipes. The concept also satisfies the design requirements for a 7-kW Brayton engine system. The weight and size of the system can be optimized by changes in geometry and technology advances for this new material.

Perez-Davis, Marla E.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Effects of windblown dust on photovoltaic surfaces on Mars

Photovoltaic (PV) coverslip material was subjected to Martian dust storm conditions using basaltic dust flowing through the Martian Surface Wind Tunnel at NASA Ames. Initially dusted and clear coverslips were held at angles from 0 to 90 deg., and the dust laden wind velocity was varied from 20 to 97 m/s. Blowing dust was found to adhere more to the coverslips as the angle was increased. However, dust was partially cleared from surfaces that were initially dusted at substantially lower velocities in dust laden wind than in clear wind. Thus, an equilibrium amount of dust accumulated which was dependent only upon angle and wind velocity and not upon initial concentration of dust. Abrasion was also evident in the coverslips. It increased with wind velocity and angle of attack. It appears that an initial dust layer may help to protect PV surfaces from abrasion.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Effects of dust accumulation and removal on radiator surfaces on Mars

Tests were carried out to assess the impact of wind blown dust accumulation and abrasion on radiator surfaces on Mars. High emittance arc-textured copper and niobium-1 percent-zirconium samples were subjected to basaltic dust laden wind at Martian pressure (1000 Pa) at speeds varying from 19 to 97 m/s in the Martian Surface Wind Tunnel. The effect of accumulated dust was also observed by pre-dusting some of the samples before the test. Radiator degradation was determined by measuring the change in the emittance after dust was deposited and/or removed. The principle mode of degradation was abrasion. Arc textured Nb-1 percent-Zr proved to be more susceptible to degradation than Cu, and pre-dusting appeared to have lessened the abrasion.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Aeolian Removal of Dust Types from Photovoltaic Surfaces on Mars

Dust elevated in local or global dust storms on the Martian surface could settle on photovoltaic (PV) surfaces and seriously hamper their performance. Using a recently developed technique to apply a uniform dust layer, PV surface materials were subjected to simulated Martian winds in an attempt to determine whether natural Aeolian processes on Mars would sweep off the settled dust. Three different types of dust were used; an optical polishing powder, basaltic "trap rock", and iron (III) oxide crystals. The effects of wind velocity, angle of attack, height above the Martian surface, and surface coating material were investigated. It was found that arrays mounted with an angle of attack approaching 45 degrees show the most efficient clearing. Although the angular dependence is not sharp, horizontally mounted arrays required significantly higher wind velocities to clear off the dust. From this test it appears that the arrays may be erected quite near the ground, but previous studies have suggested that saltation effects can be expected to cause such arrays to be covered by soil if they are set up less than about a meter from the ground. Particle size effects appear to dominate over surface chemistry in these experiments, but additional tests are required to confirm this. Providing that the surface chemistry of Martian dusts is not drastically different from simulated dust and that gravity differences have only minor effects, the materials used for protective coatings for photovoltaic arrays may be optimized for other considerations such as transparency, and chemical or abrasion resistance. The static threshold velocity is low enough that there are regions on Mars which experience winds strong enough to clear off a photovoltaic array if it is properly oriented. Turbulence fences proved to be an ineffective strategy to keep dust cleared from the photovoltaic surfaces.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Intercalated graphite fiber composites as EMI shields in aerospace structures

The requirements for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding in aerospace structures are complicated over that of ground structures by their weight limitations. As a result, the best EMI shielding materials must blend low density, high strength, and high elastic modulus with high shielding ability. In addition, fabrication considerations including penetrations and joints play a major role. The EMI shielding properties are calculated for shields formed from pristine and intercalated graphite fiber/epoxy composites and compared to preliminary experimental results and to shields made from aluminum. Calculations indicate that EMI shields could be fabricated from intercalated graphite composites which would have less than 12 percent of the mass of conventional aluminum shields, based on mechanical properties and shielding properties alone.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Aeolian Removal of Dust Types from Photovoltaic Surfaces on Mars

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Simulation of Martian dust accumulation on surfaces

Future NASA space missions include the possibility of manned landings and exploration of Mars. Environmental and operational constraints unique to Mars must be considered when selecting and designing the power system to be used on the Mars surface. A technique is described which was developed to simulate the deposition of dust on surfaces. Three kinds of dust materials were studied: aluminum oxide, basalt, and iron oxide. The apparatus was designed using the Stokes and Stokes-Cunningham law for particle fallout, with additional consideration given to particle size and shape. Characterization of the resulting dust films on silicon dioxide, polytetrafluoroethylene, indium tin oxide, diamondlike carbon, and other surfaces are discussed based on optical transmittance measurements. The results of these experiments will guide future studies which will consider processes to remove the dust from surfaces under Martian environmental conditions.

Perez-Davis, Marla E.↗

NASA NTRS1990

A review of properties and potential aerospace applications of electrically conducting polymers

An overview of current research in conducting polymers is presented. Emphasis is placed on development of materials useful for aeronautic and space applications. Research on organic conducting polymers began in the early 1970s with the discovery of polyacetylene. Since then, many polymers which share structural characteristics with polyacetylene have been prepared which conduct electricity, especially when they are doped with suitable agents. Problems with environmental instability, difficult processing, poor mechanical properties and high cost have slowed the development of conducting polymers. However, practical use of these materials is imminent, based on recent refinements in understanding how polymers conduct, more systematic approaches to the development of new materials, and significant improvements in both the processing and properties.

Meador, Mary Ann B.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Aeolian removal of dust from radiator surfaces on Mars

Simulated radiator surfaces made of arc-textured Cu and Nb-1 percent-Zr and ion beam textured graphite and C-C composite were fabricated and their integrated spectral emittance characterized from 300 to 3000 K. A thin layer of aluminum oxide, basalt, or iron (III) oxide dust was then deposited on them, and they were subjected to low pressure winds in the Martian Surface Wind Tunnel. It was found that dust deposited on simulated radiator surfaces may or may not seriously lower their integrated spectral emittance, depending upon the characteristics of the dust. With Al2O3 there is no appreciable degradation of emittance on a dusted sample, with basaltic dust there is a 10 to 20 percent degradation, and with Fe2O3 a 20 to 40 percent degradation. It was also found that very high winds on dusted highly textured surfaces can result in their abrasion. Degradation in emittance due to abrasion was found to vary with radiator material. Arc-textured Cu and Nb-1 percent Zr was found to be more susceptible to emittance degradation than graphite or C-C composite. The most abrasion occurred at low angles, peaking at the 22.5 deg test samples.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1990

The chemical effects of the Martian environment on power system component materials: A theoretical approach

In the foreseeable future, an expedition may be undertaken to explore the planet Mars. Some of the power source options being considered for such a mission are photovoltaics, regenerative fuel cells and nuclear reactors. In addition to electrical power requirements, environmental conditions en route to Mars, in the planetary orbit and on the Martian surface must be simulated and studied in order to anticipate and solve potential problems. Space power systems components such as photovoltaic arrays, radiators, and solar concentrators may be vulnerable to degradation in the Martian environment. Natural characteristics of Mars which may pose a threat to surface power systems include high velocity winds, dust, ultraviolet radiation, large daily variation in temperature, reaction to components of the soil, atmosphere and atmospheric condensates as well as synergistic combinations. Most of the current knowledge of the characteristics of the Martian atmosphere and soil composition was obtained from the Viking 1 and 2 missions in 1976. A theoretical study is presented which was used to assess the effects of the Martian atmospheric conditions on the power systems components. A computer program written at NASA-Lewis for combustion research that uses a free energy minimization technique was used to calculate chemical equilibrium for assigned thermodynamic states of temperature and pressure. The power system component materials selected for this study include: silicon dioxide, silicon, carbon, copper, and titanium. Combinations of environments and materials considered include: (1) Mars atmosphere with power surface material, (2) Mars atmosphere and dust component with power surface material, and (3) Mars atmosphere and hydrogen peroxide or superoxide or superoxide with power system material. The chemical equilibrium calculations were performed at a composition ratio (oxidant to reactant) of 100. The temperature for the silicon dioxide material and silicon, which simulate photovoltaic cells, were 300 and 400 K; for carbon, copper and titanium, which simulate radiator surfaces, 300, 500, and 1000 K. All of the systems were evaluated at pressures of 700, 800, and 900 Pa, which stimulate the Martian atmosphere.

Perez-Davis, Marla E.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Feasibility of intercalated graphite railgun armatures

Graphite intercalation compounds may provide an excellent material for the fabrication of electro-magnetic railgun armatures. As a pulse of power is fed into the armature the intercalate could be excited into the plasma state around the edges of the armature, while the bulk of the current would be carried through the graphite block. Such an armature would have the desirable characteristics of both diffuse plasma armatures and bulk conduction armatures. In addition, the highly anisotropic nature of these materials could enable the electrical and thermal conductivity to be tailored to meet the specific requirements of electromagnetic railgun armatures. Preliminary investigations were performed in an attempt to determine the feasibility of using graphite intercalation compounds as railgun armatures. Issues of fabrication, resistivity, stability, and electrical current spreading are addressed for the case of highly oriented pyrolytic graphite.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Heat transfer device and method of making the same

Gas derived graphite fibers are generated by the decomposition of an organic gas. These fibers when joined with a suitable binder are used to make a high thermal conductivity composite material. The fibers may be intercalated. The intercalate can be halogen or halide salt, alkaline metal, or any other species which contributes to the electrical conductivity improvement of the graphite fiber. The heat transfer device may also be made of intercalated highly oriented pyrolytic graphite and machined, rather than made of fibers.

Banks, Bruce A.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Aeolian removal of dust from photovoltaic surfaces on Mars

It is well documented that Mars is totally engulfed in huge dust storms nearly each Martian year. Dust elevated in these global dust storms, or in any of the numerous local dust storms could settle on photovoltaic surfaces and seriously hamper photovoltaic power system performance. Using a recently developed technique to uniformly dust simulated photovoltaic surfaces, samples were subjected to Martian-like winds in an attempt to determine whether natural aeolian processes on Mars would sweep off the settled dust. The effects of wind velocity, angle of attack, height off the Martian surface, and surface coating material were investigated. Principles which can help to guide the design of photovoltaic arrays bound for the Martian surface were uncovered. Most importantly, arrays mounted with an angle of attack approaching 45 deg show the most efficient clearing. Although the angular dependence is not sharp, horizontally mounted arrays required significantly higher wind velocities to clear off the dust. From the perspective of dust-clearing it appears that the arrays may be erected quite near the ground, but previous studies have suggested that saltation effects can be expected to cause such arrays to be covered by sand if they are set up less than about a meter from the ground. Providing that the surface chemistry of Martian dusts is comparable to our test dust, the materials used for protective coating may be optimized for other considerations such as transparency, and chemical or abrasion resistance. The static threshold velocity is low enough that there are regions on Mars which experience winds strong enough to clear off a photovoltaic array if it is properly oriented. Turbulence fences proved to be an ineffective strategy to keep dust cleared from the photovoltaic surfaces.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Density of intercalated graphite fibers

The density of Amoco P-55, P-75, P-100, and P-120 pitch-based graphite fibers and their intercalation compounds with bromine, iodine monochloride, and copper (II) chloride have been measured using a density gradient column. The distribution of densities within a fiber type is found to be a sensitive indicator of the quality of the intercalation reaction. In all cases the density was found to increase, indicating that the mass added to the graphite is dominant over fiber expansion. Density increases are small (less than 10 percent) giving credence to a model of the intercalated graphite fibers which have regions which are intercalated and regions which are not.

Gaier, James R.↗

NASA NTRS1990

Prospects for using carbon-carbon composites for EMI shielding

Since pyrolyzed carbon has a higher electrical conductivity than most polymers, carbon-carbon composites would be expected to have higher electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding ability than polymeric resin composites. A rule of mixtures model of composite conductivity was used to calculate the effect on EMI shielding of substituting a pyrolyzed carbon matrix for a polymeric matrix. It was found that the improvements were small, no more than about 2 percent for the lowest conductivity fibers (ex-rayon) and less than 0.2 percent for the highest conductivity fibers (vapor grown carbon fibers). The structure of the rule of mixtures is such that the matrix conductivity would only be important in those cases where it is much higher than the fiber conductivity, as in metal matrix composites.

Gaier, James R.↗