Engineering topics

Fulton, J. P.

Publications and source records attributed to Fulton, J. P..

At least 19 records

NASA NTRS2004

Characteristics of Electromagnetic Pulse Propagation in Metal

It is well known that the solution of the diffusion equation for an electromagnetic field with a time harmonic term, e(sup iwt), is in the form of a traveling wave whose amplitude attenuates over distance into a conducting medium. As the attenuation is an increasing function of frequency, the high frequency components attenuate more rapidly than those of low ones upon entering a well conducting object. At the same time, the phase velocity of an individual component is also an increasing function of frequency causing a broadening of the pulse traveling inside a conductor. In the results of our previous study of numerical simulations, the problem of using a gaussian input pulse was immediately clear. First, having the dominant frequency components distributed around zero, the movement of the peak was not well defined. Second, with the amplitude of fourier components varying slowly over a wide range, the dispersion-induced blurring of the peak position was seen to be severe. For the present study, we have used a gaussian modulated single frequency sinusoidal wave, i. e., the carrier, as an input pulse in an effort to improve the issues related to the unclear movement of peak and dispersion as described above. This was based on the following two anticipated advantages: First, the packet moves in a conductor at the group velocity calculated at the carrier frequency, which means it is well controllable. Second, the amplitude of frequency components other than that of the carrier can be almost negligible, such that the effect of dispersion can be significantly reduced. A series of experiments of transmitting electromagnetic pulses through aluminum plates of various thickness was performed to test the validity of the above points. The results of numerical simulation based on wave propagation are discussed with respect to the experimental results. Finally, a simple simulation was performed based on diffusion of a continuous sine wave input and the results are compared with those of a single frequency sinusoidal wave observed over time at difference locations inside a conductor.

Namkung, M.↗

NASA NTRS1994

Self-Nulling Eddy Current Probe for Surface and Subsurface Flaw Detection

An eddy current probe which provides a null-signal in the presence of unflawed material without the need for any balancing circuitry has been developed at NASA Langley Research Center. Such a unique capability of the probe reduces set-up time, eliminates tester configuration errors, and decreases instrumentation requirements. The probe is highly sensitive to surface breaking fatigue cracks, and shows excellent resolution for the measurement of material thickness, including material loss due to corrosion damage. The presence of flaws in the material under test causes an increase in the extremely stable and reproducible output voltage of the probe. The design of the probe and some examples illustrating its flaw detection capabilities are presented.

Wincheski, B.↗

NASA NTRS1994

Application of Self Nulling Eddy Current Probe Technique to the Detection of Fatigue Crack Initiation and Control of Test Procedures

A major part of fracture mechanics is concerned with studying the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. This typically requires constant monitoring of crack growth during fatigue cycles and the knowledge of the precise location of the crack tip at any given time. One technique currently available for measuring fatigue crack length is the Potential Drop method. The method, however, may be inaccurate if the direction of crack growth deviates considerably from what was assumed initially or the curvature of the crack becomes significant. Another popular approach is to optically view the crack using a high magnification microscope, but this entails a person constantly monitoring it. The present proposed technique uses an automated scheme, in order to eliminate the need for a person to constantly monitor the experiment. Another technique under development elsewhere is to digitize an optical image of the test specimen surface and then apply a pattern recognition algorithm to locate the crack tip. A previous publication showed that the self nulling eddy current probe successfully tracked a simulated crack in an aluminum sample. This was the impetus to develop an online real time crack monitoring system. An automated system has been developed which includes a two axis scanner mounted on the tensile testing machine, the probe and its instrumentation and a personal computer (PC) to communicate and control all the parameters. The system software controls the testing parameters as well as monitoring the fatigue crack as it propagates. This paper will discuss the experimental setup in detail and demonstrate its capabilities. A three dimensional finite element model is utilized to model the magnetic field distribution due to the probe and how the probe voltage changes as it scans the crack. Experimental data of the probe for different samples under zero load, static load and high cycle fatigue load will be discussed. The final section summarizes the major accomplishments of the present work, the elements of the future R&D needs and the advantages and disadvantages of using this system in the laboratory and field.

Namkung, M.↗

NASA NTRS1994

A New Electromagnetic Instrument for Thickness Gauging of Conductive Materials

Eddy current techniques are widely used to measure the thickness of electrically conducting materials. The approach, however, requires an extensive set of calibration standards and can be quite time consuming to set up and perform. Recently, an electromagnetic sensor was developed which eliminates the need for impedance measurements. The ability to monitor the magnitude of a voltage output independent of the phase enables the use of extremely simple instrumentation. Using this new sensor a portable hand-held instrument was developed. The device makes single point measurements of the thickness of nonferromagnetic conductive materials. The technique utilized by this instrument requires calibration with two samples of known thicknesses that are representative of the upper and lower thickness values to be measured. The accuracy of the instrument depends upon the calibration range, with a larger range giving a larger error. The measured thicknesses are typically within 2-3% of the calibration range (the difference between the thin and thick sample) of their actual values. In this paper the design, operational and performance characteristics of the instrument along with a detailed description of the thickness gauging algorithm used in the device are presented.

Fulton, J. P.↗

NASA NTRS1994

Issues on Reproducibility/Reliability of Magnetic NDE Methods

One of the critical elements related to the practicality of any NDE technique is its reproducibility under nominally the same inspection conditions. The results of certain test methodologies, however, are not always repeatable and understanding the origin of the irreproducibility is often as critical as obtaining reproducible results. One example is the characterization of residual stress in structural ferromagnets using the magnetoacoustic (MAC) method. Although it has not been widely publicized, the test results of this method are known to be time-dependent. Two distinct types of time dependencies have been observed during testing. The first type has a clearly definable relaxation time, while no such trend has been observed for the second. The purpose of the present study is to systematically investigate the time dependence of the second type, to find out the range and, if possible, the origin of the variation in the test results. For this, MAC curves were obtained under various stress levels and the tests were repeated over time. Particular attention was given to whether noise in the measuring device or a change in the laboratory environment could have been a contributing factor. The steel samples used for the study were cut from C- and U-class railroad wheels. The MAC behavior of these samples was reported previously. Each steel sample was first machined to be a cylindrical rod of 3.175 cm (1.25 in) in diameter and 26.67 cm (10.5 in) in length. The center portion of the samples were further machined to form a pair of flat and parallel surfaces for the launch and reflection of the ultrasonic pulses. Data acquisition involved two major elements; magnetic and acoustic measurements. Throughout the experiment the net magnetic induction, B, was measured by integrating the induction pickup coil output using an integrating fluxmeter. The acoustic measurements employed the phase-locked technique which will be described in the following.

Namkung, M.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Combined investigation of Eddy current and ultrasonic techniques for composite materials NDE

Advanced composites are not without trade-offs. Their increased designability brings an increase in the complexity of their internal geometry and, as a result, an increase in the number of failure modes associated with a defect. When two or more isotropic materials are combined in a composite, the isotropic material failure modes may also combine. In a laminate, matrix delamination, cracking and crazing, and voids and porosity, will often combine with fiber breakage, shattering, waviness, and separation to bring about ultimate structural failure. This combining of failure modes can result in defect boundaries of different sizes, corresponding to the failure of each structural component. This paper discusses a dual-technology NDE (Non Destructive Evaluation) (eddy current (EC) and ultrasonics (UT)) study of graphite/epoxy (gr/ep) laminate samples. Eddy current and ultrasonic raster (Cscan) imaging were used together to characterize the effects of mechanical impact damage, high temperature thermal damage and various types of inserts in gr/ep laminate samples of various stacking sequences.

Davis, C. W.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Quality Factor and Microslipping of Fatigue Cracks in Thin Plates at Resonant Vibration

Resonant vibrations have been stimulated in thin metal plates using a non-contacting electromagnetic driver. A sinusoidal force was applied in a swept frequency fashion and the resulting surface displacements were monitored through the use of an acoustic microphone. It has been found that the presence of a fatigue crack in the sample causes a broadening of the second resonance peak. The Q factors of the resonance curves were determined and are directly correlated with the presence of fatigue cracks in the samples. The broadening of the curves is explained in terms of a microslipping at the crack face walls which reduces the amplitude of the resonant vibration by increasing the damping of the system. A comparison is made between the resonance characteristics of fatigue damaged and notched samples, where the stiffness of the two systems is nearly constant while the interaction between crack face walls is eliminated in the latter.

Wincheski, B.↗

NASA NTRS1993

A Probabilistic Model for Simulating Magnetoacoustic Emission Responses in Ferromagnets

Magnetoacoustic emission (MAE) is a phenomenon where acoustic noise is generated due to the motion of non-180 magnetic domain walls in a ferromagnet with non-zero magnetostrictive constants. MAE has been studied extensively for many years and has even been applied as an NDE tool for characterizing the heat treatment of high-yield low carbon steels. A complete theory which fully accounts for the magnetoacoustic response, however, has not yet emerged. The motion of the domain walls appears to be a totally random process, however, it does exhibit features of regularity which have been identified by studying phenomena such as 1/f flicker noise and self-organized criticality (SOC). In this paper, a probabilistic model incorporating the effects of SOC has been developed to help explain the MAE response. The model uses many simplifying assumptions yet yields good qualitative agreement with observed experimental results and also provides some insight into the possible underlying mechanisms responsible for MAE. We begin by providing a brief overview of magnetoacoustic emission and the experimental set-up used to obtain the MAE signal. We then describe a pseudo-probabilistic model used to predict the MAE response and give an example of the predicted result. Finally, the model is modified to account for SOC and the new predictions are shown and compared with experiment.

Namkung, M.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Self-Organized Criticality and Phase Problem in Magnetoaocustic Emission Burst in Ferromagnets

Two types of ferromagnets, pure iron and steel with varying geometry and microstructural properties, were prepared for the present study of magnetoacoustic emission (MAE). The purpose was to separate the effects of structural property variations from changes caused by differences in the sample geometry. The position and shape of the leading MAE sub-burst and its variation among the samples are explained by magnetic anisotropy and the results of numerical simulations which utilized the concept of self-organized criticality (SOC). The amplitude and duration of the second sub-burst, which previously was thought to occur as a result of a complicated interaction between non-180 deg domain walls and lattice defects, can easily be explained by the results of our simulation.

Namkung, M.↗

NASA NTRS1993

An Application of a New Electromagnetic Sensor to Real-Time Monitoring of Fatigue Crack Growth in Thin Metal Plates

A major part of fracture mechanics is concerned with studying the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks. This typically requires constant monitoring of crack growth during fatigue cycles which necessitates automation of the whole process. If the rate of crack growth can be determined the experimenter can vary externally controlled parameters such as load level, load cycle frequency and so on. Hence, knowledge of the precise location of the crack tip at any given time is very valuable. One technique currently available for measuring fatigue crack length is the DC potential drop method. The method, however, may be inaccurate if the direction of crack growth deviates considerably from what was assumed initially or the curvature of the crack becomes significant. Another approach is to digitize an optical image of the test specimen surface and then apply a pattern recognition technique to locate the crack tip, but this method is still under development. The present work is an initial study on applying eddy current-type probes to monitoring fatigue crack growth. The performance of two types of electromagnetic probes, a conventional eddy current probe and a newly developed self-nulling probe, was evaluated for the detection characteristics at and near the tips of fatigue cracks. The scan results show that the latter probe provides a very well defined local maximum in its output in the crack tip region suggesting the definite possibility of precisely locating the tip, while the former provides a somewhat ambiguous distribution of the sensor output in the same region. The paper is organized as follows: We start by reviewing the design and performance characteristics of the self-nulling probe and then describe the scan results which demonstrate the basic properties of the self-nulling probe. Next, we provide a brief description of the software developed for tracing a simulated crack and give a brief discussion of the main results of the test. The final section summarizes the major accomplishments of the present work and the elements of the future R&D needs.

Namkung, M.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Characterization of Magnetoacoustic Emission Related to Structural Properties of Ferromagnets

An extensive study of magnetoacoustic emission (MAE) properties has been performed over the past several years. As a result, the dependence of the spectral characteristics of MAE on certain microstructural variations and uniaxially applied stress in a particular type of low carbon steel are now well known. The embrittlement-causing concentration of certain atomic species, e. g., tin, sulphur, phosphorous etc., at the grain boundaries of this steel creates strong potential barriers resisting the motion of non-180 domain walls which is the source of MAE. (Since the only type of non-180 domain walls in this material are 90 domain walls, the term 90 domain wall will be used throughout this paper in place of non-180 domain wall.) An MAE burst produced during one-half cycle of a hysteresis loop at a low AC magnetic field frequency (e. g., 0.7 Hz) shows two sub-peaks; the leading peak is usually sharp and short-lived, while the trailing peak is usually smooth and long-lasting. It has been shown that the enhanced domain wall-defect interaction, due to the strengthened potential barriers, causes an increase in the asymmetry of the MAE signal by suppressing the leading sub-peak and amplifying the trailing sub-peak. This phenomena is due to the delayed motion of the 90 domain walls. The effect of a tensile stress applied parallel to the external AC magnetic field is to diminish the MAE. On the other hand, the amplitude of the MAE burst has been shown to be a non-monotonic function of the stress amplitude. Recently, our study has concentrated on obtaining quantitative values for parameters computed from the MAE spectra averaged over a sufficient number of cycles to achieve statistical stability. Nevertheless, certain fundamental elements of the MAE characteristics remain unexplained.

Namkung, M.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Mutual Inductance Problem for a System Consisting of a Current Sheet and a Thin Metal Plate

Rapid inspection of aircraft structures for flaws is of vital importance to the commercial and defense aircraft industry. In particular, inspecting thin aluminum structures for flaws is the focus of a large scale R&D effort in the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) community. Traditional eddy current methods used today are effective, but require long inspection times. New electromagnetic techniques which monitor the normal component of the magnetic field above a sample due to a sheet of current as the excitation, seem to be promising. This paper is an attempt to understand and analyze the magnetic field distribution due to a current sheet above an aluminum test sample. A simple theoretical model, coupled with a two dimensional finite element model (FEM) and experimental data will be presented in the next few sections. A current sheet above a conducting sample generates eddy currents in the material, while a sensor above the current sheet or in between the two plates monitors the normal component of the magnetic field. A rivet or a surface flaw near a rivet in an aircraft aluminum skin will disturb the magnetic field, which is imaged by the sensor. Initial results showed a strong dependence of the flaw induced normal magnetic field strength on the thickness and conductivity of the current-sheet that could not be accounted for by skin depth attenuation alone. It was believed that the eddy current imaging method explained the dependence of the thickness and conductivity of the flaw induced normal magnetic field. Further investigation, suggested the complexity associated with the mutual inductance of the system needed to be studied. The next section gives an analytical model to better understand the phenomenon.

Fulton, J. P.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Multi-Mode Excitation and Data Reduction for Fatigue Crack Characterization in Conducting Plates

Advances in the technique of fatigue crack characterization by resonant modal analysis have been achieved through a new excitation mechanism and data reduction of multiple resonance modes. A non-contacting electromagnetic device is used to apply a time varying Lorentz force to thin conducting sheets. The frequency and direction of the Lorentz force are such that resonance modes are generated in the test sample. By comparing the change in frequency between distinct resonant modes of a sample, detecting and sizing of fatigue cracks are achieved and frequency shifts caused by boundary condition changes can be discriminated against. Finite element modeling has been performed to verify experimental results.

Wincheski, B.↗

NASA NTRS1992

AC Magnetic Field Frequency Dependence of Magnetoacoustic Emission

Our recent study has proved a strong correlation between the low-frequency AC applied magnetic field amplitude dependence of the asymmetry of the magnetoacoustic emission (MAE) burst and the strength of the domain wall-defect interaction in iron-base ferromagnets. For the present study the AC magnetic field frequency dependence of the asymmetry has been investigated in the range of 1 to 200 Hz. When represented by the third moment of the rectified acoustic emission pulses, the asymmetry becomes a bell-shaped function of frequency with its center located around 25 Hz. This experiment has been performed with low carbon, high yield stress steel specimens of three different levels of domain wall-defect interaction strength. The results show that the increase in the interaction strength causes a vertical down shift of the asymmetry in the entire frequency range investigated.

Namkung, M.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Analysis of the Mutual Inductance between Two Parallel Plates for the Detection of Surface Flaws

There has recently been much effort behind the development of NDE methods applicable to the detection of surface/subsurface flaws in thin metallic structures with a rapid scan capability. One such method, an electromagnetic technique using a current-sheet parallel to the surface of a specimen in order to induce eddy current flow shows a high potential for satisfying the rapid scan requirement stated above. The technique is based on the detection of flaw-induced magnetic field components normal to the specimen surface by an appropriate detection mechanism positioned above the current-sheet as shown schematically in Fig. 1. As indicated in this figure, the current-sheet separates the source of the normal magnetic field components from the detector in such a way that the electric and magnetic properties of the current-sheet can be a major factor affecting the strength of the detected signals. The purpose of the present study is, therefore, to perform a detailed investigation on the effect of the material properties of the current-sheet on the detected signal strength and to establish a simple theoretical model for the detection mechanism.

Namking, M.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Automated Weld Characterization Using the Thermoelectric Method

The effective assessment of the integrity of welds is a complicated NDE problem that continues to be a challenge. To be able to completely characterize a weld, detailed knowledge of its tensile strength, ductility, hardness, microstructure, macrostructure, and chemical composition is needed. NDE techniques which can provide information on any of these features are extremely important. In this paper, we examine a seldom used approach based on the thermoelectric (TE) effect for characterizing welds and their associated heat affected zone (HAZ). The thermoelectric method monitors the thermoelectric power which is sensitive to small changes in the kinetics of the conduction electrons near the Fermi surface that can be caused by changes in the local microstructure. The technique has been applied to metal sorting, quality testing, flaw detection, thickness gauging of layers, and microscopic structural analysis. To demonstrate the effectiveness of the technique for characterizing welds, a series of tungsten-inert-gas welded Inconel-718 samples were scanned with a computer controlled TE probe. The samples were then analyzed using a scanning electron microscope and Rockwell hardness tests to characterize the weld and the associated HAZ. We then correlated the results with the TE measurements to provide quantitative information on the size of the HAZ and the degree of hardness of the material in the weld region. This provides potentially valuable information on the strength and fatigue life of the weld. We begin the paper by providing a brief review of the TE technique and then highlight some of the factors that can effect the measurements. Next, we provide an overview of the experimental procedure and discuss the results. Finally, we summarize our findings and consider areas for future research.

Fulton, J. P.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Finite Element Modeling of the Bulk Magnitization of Railroad Wheels to Improve Test Conditions for Magnetoacoustic Residual Stress Measurements

The magnetoacoustic measurement technique has been used successfully for residual stress measurements in laboratory samples. However, when used to field test samples with complex geometries, such as railroad wheels, the sensitivity of the method declines dramatically. It has been suggested that the decrease in performance may be due, in part, to an insufficient or nonuniform magnetic induction in the test sample. The purpose of this paper is to optimize the test conditions by using finite element modeling to predict the distribution of the induced bulk magnetization of railroad wheels. The results suggest that it is possible to obtain a sufficiently large and uniform bulk magnetization by altering the shape of the electromagnet used in the tests. Consequently, problems associated with bulk magnetization can be overcome, and should not prohibit the magnetoacoustic technique from being used to make residual stress measurements in railroad wheels. We begin by giving a brief overview of the magnetoacoustic technique as it applies to residual stress measurements of railroad wheels. We then define the finite element model used to predict the behavior of the current test configuration along with the nonlinear constitutive relations which we obtained experimentally through measurements on materials typically used to construct both railroad wheels and electromagnets. Finally, we show that by modifying the pole of the electromagnet it is possible to obtain a significantly more uniform bulk magnetization in the region of interest.

Fulton, J. P.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Characterization of Asymmetry in Magnetoacoustic Emission Burst by Numerical Processes

It has been well known that the pattern of the magnetoacoustic emission (MAE) burst observed during the sweep over one half-cycle of the hysteresis loop becomes asymmetric depending on the strength of the magnetic domain wall-defect interaction and the state of residual stresses in a ferromagnet. The ascending asymmetry due to the former has been observed at a very low frequency (.7 Hz) of applied AC magnetic field at a given amplitude. The descending asymmetry due to uniaxial compressive stress has been typically observed at the AC applied magnetic field frequency of 20 Hz. The physical interpretation of both types of asymmetry has been well established. It is, however, necessary to perform investigations of the dependence of asymmetry on externally controlled parameters such as the amplitude and frequency of the AC applied magnetic fields. The purpose of the present study is therefore to devise a mathematical means that describes the degree of asymmetry of the MAE burst and apply this scheme to investigate the AC magnetic field amplitude dependence of the asymmetry.

Namkung, M.↗