Engineering topics
Publications and source records attributed to Downing, David R..
This report contains two sections, each of which describes a proposal for a program at the University of Nebraska. The sections are entitled: 1) Aerospace Workforce Development Augmentation Competition; 2) Native Connections: A Multi-Consortium Workforce Development Proposal.
This report attempts to unify in a single document the results of a series of studies on fighter aircraft agility funded by the NASA Ames Research Center, Dryden Flight Research Facility and conducted at the University of Kansas Flight Research Laboratory during the period January 1989 through December 1993. New metrics proposed by pilots and the research community to assess fighter aircraft agility are collected and analyzed. The report develops a framework for understanding the context into which the various proposed fighter agility metrics fit in terms of application and testing. Since new metrics continue to be proposed, this report does not claim to contain every proposed fighter agility metric. Flight test procedures, test constraints, and related criteria are developed. Instrumentation required to quantify agility via flight test is considered, as is the sensitivity of the candidate metrics to deviations from nominal pilot command inputs, which is studied in detail. Instead of supplying specific, detailed conclusions about the relevance or utility of one candidate metric versus another, the authors have attempted to provide sufficient data and analyses for readers to formulate their own conclusions. Readers are therefore ultimately responsible for judging exactly which metrics are 'best' for their particular needs. Additionally, it is not the intent of the authors to suggest combat tactics or other actual operational uses of the results and data in this report. This has been left up to the user community. Twenty of the candidate agility metrics were selected for evaluation with high fidelity, nonlinear, non real-time flight simulation computer programs of the F-5A Freedom Fighter, F-16A Fighting Falcon, F-18A Hornet, and X-29A. The information and data presented on the 20 candidate metrics which were evaluated will assist interested readers in conducting their own extensive investigations. The report provides a definition and analysis of each metric; details of how to test and measure the metric, including any special data reduction requirements; typical values for the metric obtained using one or more aircraft types; and a sensitivity analysis if applicable. The report is organized as follows. The first chapter in the report presents a historical review of air combat trends which demonstrate the need for agility metrics in assessing the combat performance of fighter aircraft in a modern, all-aspect missile environment. The second chapter presents a framework for classifying each candidate metric according to time scale (transient, functional, instantaneous), further subdivided by axis (pitch, lateral, axial). The report is then broadly divided into two parts, with the transient agility metrics (pitch lateral, axial) covered in chapters three, four, and five, and the functional agility metrics covered in chapter six. Conclusions, recommendations, and an extensive reference list and biography are also included. Five appendices contain a comprehensive list of the definitions of all the candidate metrics; a description of the aircraft models and flight simulation programs used for testing the metrics; several relations and concepts which are fundamental to the study of lateral agility; an in-depth analysis of the axial agility metrics; and a derivation of the relations for the instantaneous agility and their approximations.
Several functional agility metrics, including the combat cycle time metric, dynamic speed turn plots, and relative energy state metric, are used to compare turning performance for generic F-18, X-29, and X-31-type aircraft models. These three-degree-of-freedom models have characteristics similar to the real aircraft. The performance comparisons are made using data from optimal test trajectories to reduce sensitivities to different pilot input techniques and to reduce the effects of control system limiters. The turn performance for all three aircraft is calculated for simulated minimum time 180 deg heading captures from simulation data. Comparisons of the three aircraft give more insight into turn performance than would be available from traditional measures of performance. Using the optimal test technique yields significant performance improvements as measured by the metrics. These performance improvements were found without significant increases in turn radius.
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The effect of vehicle configuration and flight control system performance on the roll agility of a modern fighter aircraft has been investigated. A batch simulation of a generic F-18 Hornet was used to study the roll agility as measured by the time to roll through 90 deg metric. Problems discussed include definition of agility, factors affecting the agility of a vehicle, the development of the time to roll through 90 deg agility metric, and a simulation experiment. It is concluded that the integral of stability or wind axis roll rate should be used as a measure of the roll measure traversed. The time through roll angle 90 deg metric is considered to be a good metric for measuring the transient performance aspect of agility. Roll agility of the F-18, as measured by 90 deg metric, can be improved by 10 to 30 percent. Compatible roll and rudder actuator rates can significantly affect 90 deg agility metric.
A new candidate lateral agility metric, the modified torsional agility parameter, is proposed and tested through generic, nonlinear, non-real-time flight simulation programs of the F-18 and F-5A. The metric is aimed at quantifying high subsonic loaded roll capabilities which might be useful in modern air combat. The metric is considered to be straightforward for testing and measuring based on nonreal-time unmanned flight simulation. The metric is found to be sensitive to pilot input errors of less than full lateral stick to capture bank angle, when tested using unmanned flight simulations. It is suggested that, for redesigned configurations of both aircraft with improved lateral agility, the major benefit would be provided by fast and highly effective rudders, and a high level of pitch, roll, and yaw damping at moderate to high normal load factor levels.
A method to design sidestick controllers for general aviation aircraft with reversible flight controls is proposed. The use of a sidestick in this type of flight vehicle generally increases the stick forces required for maneuvering; this is due to a reduction in the moment arm of application of the force. In the present study, the reduction of stick forces is achieved by incorporating geared tabs in the control-surface design. A complete analysis using the rigid-body aircraft longitudinal equations of motion and stick-force equation in coupled form is carried out. Lateral stick forces are predicted by solving the single-degree-of-freedom roll approximation and aileron stick-force equations. Data are presented for configurations with various tab areas and a wide range of gearing ratios. The results indicate that the method can be used successfully for geared-tab design and stick-force prediction. It is shown that gearing-ratio selection is critical but that tab area does not have a significant impact on the magnitude of stick forces and stick force to stick deflection gradients.
This paper presents the results of an analysis of proposed metrics to assess fighter aircraft agility. A novel framework for classifying these metrics is developed and applied. A set of transient metrics intended to quantify the axial and pitch agility of fighter aircraft is evaluated with a high fidelity, nonlinear F-18 simulation. Test techniques and data reduction method are proposed, and sensitivities to pilot introduced errors during flight testing is investigated. Results indicate that the power onset and power loss parameters are promising candidates for quantifying axial agility, while maximum pitch up and pitch down rates are for quantifying pitch agility.
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The design of a Ride Quality Augmentation System (RQAS) for commuter aircraft is documented. The RQAS is designed for a Cessna 402B, an 8 passenger prop twin representative to this class of aircraft. The purpose of the RQAS is the reduction of vertical and lateral accelerations of the aircraft due to atmospheric turbulence by the application of active control. The detailed design of the hardware (the aircraft modifications, the Ride Quality Instrumentation System (RQIS), and the required computer software) is examined. The aircraft modifications, consisting of the dedicated control surfaces and the hydraulic actuation system, were designed at Cessna Aircraft by Kansas University-Flight Research Laboratory. The instrumentation system, which consist of the sensor package, the flight computer, a Data Acquisition System, and the pilot and test engineer control panels, was designed by NASA-Langley. The overall system design and the design of the software, both for flight control algorithms and ground system checkout are detailed. The system performance is predicted from linear simulation results and from power spectral densities of the aircraft response to a Dryden gust. The results indicate that both accelerations are possible.
The development and testing of a real-time takeoff performance monitoring system is discussed. The algorithm is made up of two segments: a pretakeoff segment and a real-time segment. One-time inputs of ambient conditions and airplane configuration information are used in the pretakeoff segment to generate schedule performance data for that takeoff. The real-time segment uses the scheduled performance data generated in the pretakeoff segment, runway length data, and measured parameters to monitor the performance of the airplane throughout the takeoff roll. Airplane and engine performance deficiencies are detected and annunciated. An important feature of this algorithm is the one-time estimation of the runway rolling friction coefficient. The algorithm was tested using a six degree of freedom airplane model in a computer simulation. Results from a series of sensitivity analysis are also included.
This paper presents a detailed analysis of a candidate algorithm for a ride quality augmentation system. The algorithm consists of a full-state feedback control law based on optimal control output weighting, estimators for angle of attack and sideslip, and a maneuvering algorithm. The control law is shown to perform well by both frequency and time domain analysis. The rms vertical acceleration is reduced by about 40 percent over the whole mission flight envelope. The estimators for the angle of attack and sideslip avoid the often inaccurate or costly direct measurement of those angles. The maneuvering algorithm will allow the augmented airplane to respond to pilot inputs. The design characteristics and performance are documented by the closed-loop eigenvalues; rms levels of vertical, lateral, and longitudinal acceleration; and representative time histories and frequency response.
A concept that uses the azimuth signal from a microwave landing system (MLS) combined with onboard airspeed and heading data to estimate the horizontal range to the runway threshold is investigated. The absolute range error is evaluated for trajectories typical of General Aviation (GA) and commercial airline operations (CAO). These include constant intercept angles for GA and CAO, and complex curved trajectories for CAO. It is found that range errors of 4000 to 6000 feet at the entry of MLS coverage which then reduce to 1000-foot errors at runway centerline intercept are possible for GA operations. For CAO, errors at entry into MLS coverage of 2000 feet which reduce to 300 feet at runway centerline interception are possible.
This paper describes the flight test evaluation of an advanced digital helicopter flight control system. The controller was designed using an optimal control design procedure for a fully coupled lateral and longitudinal vehicle model. Explicit integrals of the guidance error were included to produce a type 1 characteristic. Gain scheduling was used to account for changes in the vehicle dynamics. The digital controller was exercised by combining it with state estimators, a trajectory generator, and a closed-loop guidance algorithm to form a helicopter autoland system. A CH-47 tandem rotor helicopter was equipped with sensors, on-board digital flight computers, and electrohydraulic actuators. The system was exercised by automatically flying straight-in descending decelerating trajectories typcial of VFR manual landing approaches. A description of the test-ground facilities, the flight hardware and software, and the velocity and position tracking performance is included.
Discussed are the development and testing of a real-time takeoff performance monitoring algorithm. The algorithm is made up of two segments: a pretakeoff segment and a real-time segment. One-time imputs of ambient conditions and airplane configuration information are used in the pretakeoff segment to generate scheduled performance data for that takeoff. The real-time segment uses the scheduled performance data generated in the pretakeoff segment, runway length data, and measured parameters to monitor the performance of the airplane throughout the takeoff roll. Airplane and engine performance deficiencies are detected and annunciated. An important feature of this algorithm is the one-time estimation of the runway rolling friction coefficient. The algorithm was tested using a six-degree-of-freedom airplane model in a computer simulation. Results from a series of sensitivity analyses are also included.
A sensitivity analysis technique for multiloop flight control systems is studied. This technique uses the scaled singular values of the return difference matrix as a measure of the relative stability of a control system. It then uses the gradients of these singular values with respect to system and controller parameters to judge sensitivity. The sensitivity analysis technique is first reviewed; then it is extended to include digital systems, through the derivation of singular-value gradient equations. Gradients with respect to parameters which do not appear explicitly as control-system matrix elements are also derived, so that high-order systems can be studied. A complete review of the integrated technique is given by way of a simple example: the inverted pendulum problem. The technique is then demonstrated on the X-29 control laws. Results show linear models of real systems can be analyzed by this sensitivity technique, if it is applied with care. A computer program called SVA was written to accomplish the singular-value sensitivity analysis techniques. Thus computational methods and considerations form an integral part of many of the discussions. A user's guide to the program is included. The SVA is a fully public domain program, running on the NASA/Dryden Elxsi computer.